integumentary system

Lab1 : Title: integumentary system

Objective

·         To observe anatomically and identify the histology structure of the skin

·         To differentiate the thick and thin layer of skin

·         To observe physiology function of integumentary system

Theory

The skin often considered as the an organ sytem because of its extent and complexity,it does much more than cover the body exterior,arthitecturally  the skin is a wonder .it is tough yet pliable characteristic that enable it to withstand constant from outside agent ,it has several fun tion  but most concernwith protection,it is made up  two layer,the dermis and eperdemis,it has thick and thin layer of skin to allow heat transmission and sweating.

Material :

·         Ear   thermometer

·         Forehead thermometer

·         Immersion oil

·         Stop watch

·         H&E mounted thick and thin skin slide

·         Microscope

·         Skin model

·         Color pensil

·         Drawing material

Method :

1.       examined the skin model and draw the observation

2.      The thick layer of the skin slide are examined using the 10x,40x,and 100x under the light microscope

3.      Labelled the drawing

4.      The thin layer are observed by  the same way of the thick skin

5.      Measure the body temperature usng the ear thermometer and forehead thermometer

6.      For 3 minutes running and record the the body temperature

7.      The step are repeated for 15 minutes

8.      The observation are recorded

Discussion

From this experiment we have been given a model of the human skin model and the slide of the thick and thin human skin.there we observe the morphology of the skin and identify the layer of the skin we also have been recorded the observation into the drawing with the using of the microscope magnification 40X,other than the check the body temperature and the temperature of the body after certain activity are doing.like running and jogging.this show the human system of the body when carried of  the body homeostasis,as the largest organ in the human body the skin have been doing many function like build the vitamin D, remove heat and release  heat from the body,and other function.the chages that occur on the skin making the skin have been changing depend on the type of function that it has been made.there are changes that may happen on the skin and the ear before and after running,the colour of the skin and ear  are brown(depend on the people skin) at this stage the all mechanism for the skin are in normal condition like the blood veesel are normal size and the sweat gland are not excreated the sweat.and the temperature are 36.5 ^oc.after doing the running activity the temperature increase around 37^oc the colour also changing from brown to red and body become sweating it because the skin have changing inside it like the blood vessel become expand and bigger also near the eperdemis.the sweat gland also becoming the secret the sweat the skin outer layer.

Conclusion

By doing this experiment the morphology of the skin can be identify and observed.we also can know the function of the skin by doing it.we also can know the body exact temperature when  doing running activity.

Question

1. Explain the differences in the structure of the thick and thin layer of the skin

The thick skin have five layers is startum basala, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum and corneum.while the thin skin four layers is contains five layers: startum basala, spinosum, granulosum, and corneum .there are one structure that is lucidium,it is a thin, clear layer of dead skin cells in the epidermis.it were created because the cell from the lower layer are pushed out into the above layer.for all the other layer it is no different at all.

2. A white man ,jog on a cold day,what color would the expect his to be ?

a)just before starting to run-white

b)during the run-red

c)5minutes after the run-reddish

3. Explain how the sweating helps maintain normal body temperature

Sweat are excreated from the sweat gland,it located in the layer of dermis to the eperdemis layer.when the body temperature are increase the heat are release out from it by the blood vessel and the sweat are excreated the sweat to store the heat inside the sweat and realese out the heat by the sweat.

References

Anatomy and physiology note

http://www.innerbody.com/image_nerv16/nerv141.html

bone cartilage and muscular system

Lab 2:Title:bone cartilage and muscular system

Objective:

·         To observe and identify the histology of the muscle ,bone and cartilage

·         To identify the differentiate all the type of the muscle and bone cartilage

·         To identify the physiology function of the muscle

Theory

The muscular system is the biological system of animal (include human ) that allow to move internalll and externally ,the muscular system in vertebrates consists of 3 diferent type of muscle that is cardiac,skeletal and smooth.cardiac are striated muscle that makes up the heart ,it is not only the muscle that consist of the branching fibers there also skeletal muscle that is voluntary miuscle that attached to the frame of the skeletonthat enabeling the movement of the body.smooth muscle is the voluntary that enable the movement of the internal organ like the peristalsis all the movement of te muscle are controled by the nervous system ,there are about 700 muscle in the human body ,the skeleton is constructed by the two most supportive tissues found in the human body cartilage and bone ,in th emebroyos.the skeleton is composed mainly of hyaline cartilage  but in adult most of tyeh artilage is replaced by more rigid bone

Material

·         Microscope

·         Immersion oil

·         Muscle slide=skeletal,cardiac and smooth muscle

·         Compact bone slide

·         Sponge bone slide

·         Cartilage =hyaline,elastic and fibred

Method :

1.      Observed the slide of the skeletal muscle using magnification power 10x,40x and 100x underlight microscope

2.      The observation that see are drawed with labelled

3.      The step repeated for the other slide

4.      For the muscle physiology function refered to the guide line gived

Discussion

For this experiment i were gived the slide to observe themorphology of each type of the slide,like skeletal ,cardiac,smooth,compact bone,spongy bone,hyaline cartilage,elastic cartilage and fibred cartilage.the skeletal muscle are the muscle that attach to the bone,it responsible for the movement,it are covered all the human body,it can make the voluntary and involuntary action,that are responsibldo by the central nervous system.it is the cylindrical shape,the nucleus are uni and situated at the peripheral of the cell.compare to the cardiac muscle it not cylindrical shape it are located at the involountary organ like heart,it have uni nucleues and like square shape ,it have the intercalary disc that separate the muscle it self.for the smooth muscle it is involuntary non striated muscle,the shape are like the bundle shaped.it has large intensity of stretching,it located at the urinary bladder and intestinal tract.it can be controlled by the voluntary action.for the compact bone it function to  support the whole body, protect organs, provide levers for movement, and store and release chemical elements mainly calcium it are hard and strong.for the spongy bone it  lighter, softer, and weaker than compact orcortical bone, the other type of calcium tissue, but it has a greater surface area and is much more vascular, or supplied with blood vessels. Spongy bone is found on the inside of some bones, and it is surrounded by the stronger, more protective compact bone.for the hyaline cartilage it consist of the chondrocyte,lacuna and matrix, no nerves or blood vessels. It has high elasticity and helps cushion and protect bones. The word hyaline comes from the Greek for glassy, and refers to the translucence of the tissue.elastic cartilage then are  similar to hyaline cartilage but contains many yellow elastic fibers lying in a solid matrix and it also specialized, fibrous connective tissue present in adults, and forming the temporary skeleton in the embryo, providing a model in which the bones develop, and constituting a part of the organism's growth mechanism; the three most important types are hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibrocartilage. Also, a general term for a mass of such tissue in a particular site in the body.the fibred cartilage mixture of white fibrous tissue and cartilaginous tissue in various proportions.it have all three type of fibred inside it,

Conclusion

The all morphology of the muscle,bone and cartilage are observed the and drawed,to understand the morphology of it.

Question

1.      Explain the different between structure of the 3 muscle tissues.

The smooth muscle it bundle shaped uni nucleus and long .the cardiac muscle is for involuntary action muscle and have intercalary disc and branced.it also fused nucleus.the skeletal muscle are covered all body part and abundance in the body.

2.      Differentiate in structure of 3 type cartilage

The elastic cartilage consist 1 type of fiber and have chrondrocyte in it.it not have any other type of fiber in it.the hyaline cartilage it have lacuna ,chondrocyte and matrix.th efibred cartilage have have  three al type of fibred in it.

3.      The bones of elder people break more easily than the bones of younger people,why?

 mainly the older peole have loss it bone strength and the deposition of the calsium in it also become to fail.it making the bone become easy to break like the osteophorosis deasies ,the  bone structure on the old people are more easy to  fracture because it cannot hold the  burden the weight of the if the deposition are  continue to loss.

References

Human genetic and general biology note

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277945/hyaline-cartilage

formalin ethyl acetate

Practical 3:formalin ethyl acetate concentration technique

Objective: to identify the type of parasite that can be identify by the formalin ethyl acetate

Material: centrifuge tube,feces specimen,centrifuge,formalin ethyl acetate,

Procedure :

1.      The centrifuge tube were prepared,the filtrated feces were added into it for 15ml

2.      The tube were centrifuge for 1500 rpm about 2minutes

3.      After centrfifuged ,it were added with 7-8ml formalin resuspended and leaved for 10 minutes,before that it must sediment only inside the tube,

4.      The 3-4ml ethyl acetate were added after that and shaked vigorously,

5.      Centrifuged for 1500 rpm for 2 minutes and the 4 layer were presented,

6.      The bottom of the layer were direct mounted and obsereved on the slide

Discussion

The concentration technique were used for the identification of the intestinal nematode ,the concentration technique were used to make the identification of the nematode can be recognize more effectively,it may affected the trphozoite of the nematode to be recognize,some of the concentration technique were the floatation technique and other were sediment,the debris can be removed effectively by the concentration technique to observe the parasite .the centrifuge were used in this experiment to separate the low specific gravity with higher specific gravity,it commoly used for the feces the preservative with formalin.

The purpose of the reagent in this experiment like the ethyl-acetate were  Less flammable and more stable than ether,Less combustable than ether,Greater numerical recovery of parasites (especially with Taena sp,  H. nanaand  A. lumbricoides, and many cysts). But the Disadvantages of this reagent were Thicker deposit and A less effective lipid extraction agent therefore Triton-X must be added into the solution.the formalin are used in this experiment as the preservative and the ethyl acetate were the best technique in the feces preservative with the formalin,

The precaution that needed to be done in this experiment are make sure the amount of the feces are in exact amount,the sediment must be remain in good condition so the wet mount can be done correctly and no error were done,parasite can be identify exactly.the time for the centrifugation were correctly so the layer formed are exactly 4 layer,if not 4 layer from test are make again.the feces also must be in accurate amount so the test are good result,

 The eggs are oval or elliptical, measuring 60 µm by 40 µm, colourless, not bile stained and with a thin transparent hyaline shell membrane. When released by the worm in the intestine, the egg contains an unsegmented ovum. During its passage down the intestine, the ovum develops and thus the eggs passed in feces have a segmented ovum, usually with 4 to 8 blastomeres. As the eggs of both Ancylostoma and Necator (and most other hookworm species) are indistinguishable, to identify the genus, they must be cultured in the lab to allow larvae to hatch out. If the fecal sample is left for a day or more under tropical conditions, the larvae will have hatched out, so eggs might no longer be evident. In such a case, it is essential to distinguish hookworms from Strongyloides larvae, Laboratory diagnosis depends on finding larvae in stool, sputum or duodenal aspirates.  The first stage rhabditiform larvae measure approximately 250 long by 20 wide. 

They have a bulbed oesophagus and a short buccal cavity.  In an old specimen, rhabditiform larvae of S. stercoralis must be differentiated from those of hookworm which have a longer buccal cavity.  The third stage or filariform larva is approximately 500 long and has a notched tail  compared with that of hookworm which is sheathed and has a long slender tail.

Conclusion

The ethyl acetate concentration technique can be identify the hookworm and the strongliloides strerocralis nematode.it were taken at the bottom of the tube and direct wet mount.

Question

1.      What type of feces can be used for the ethyl acetate?

For the best result were the feces with the formlain preservative

2.      Can other parasite can be found with ethyl acetate?

Yes ,like the giarda lamblia.and E.coli

3.      What happen if the ethyl acetate direct contact with flame?

It do not burn.because it not volatile and not flammable

References

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC267882/

brine floatation technique

Practical2

Title :brine/floatation technique

Objective :

1.      To identify the purpose of reagent used

2.      To identify parasite

Method :

1.      4mL stool are mixed togheter with 8mL saline

2.      The wire gauze are used to filtrate the stool solution and channel it to universal bottle

3.      The brine solution are filled into the it until reached the top mark

4.      Placed the slide on top of the bottle mouth leaved for 30minutes,the slide are lifted and observed

result

Discussion

Brine floatation technique are used to confirmation the parasite ,the less weight of the parasite egg or adult worm can be identify by this technique, the  parasite will be float to the test tube mouth or the bottle mouth and sample can be get from there, the specimen like the stool or other type. the principle of this test are used the method of a qualitative test for the detection of nematode and cestode eggs and coccidia oocysts in the faeces. It is based on the separating of eggs from faecal material and concentrating them by means of a flotation fluid with an appropriate specific gravity. the higher of the specific gravity of the parasite the more tendency the parasite are floating on the slide that placed.

the brine solution are slightly like the salt solution that float anything that less density than it ,containing  the sodium chloride that will float the parasite in the solution that made up, the brine must be using the brine bottle to get the good result, after the slide were  leaved on the bottle mouth it must be placed for the 30 minutes to allowed the parasite to deposited in it.

The hookworm egg are result that can be get from this test the hookworm  eggs are oval or elliptical, measuring 60 µm by 40 µm, colourless, not bile stained and with a thin transparent hyaline shell membrane. When released by the worm in the intestine, the egg contains an un segmented ovum. During its passage down the intestine, the ovum develops and thus the eggs passed in feces have a segmented ovum, usually with 4 to 8 blastomeres. The trichuris are other type of parasite that can be identify from this test,the egg of this parasite are less density than the brine solution. the egg morphology barrel or spindle in shape and 50 x 20µm in size. It is brownish and has a translucent polar plug at either ends. The content of the egg is an undeveloped cell  the egg of the ascaris are heavy only the unfertilized egg are the un heavy one.the ascaris also can be identify from this test the unfertilize egg because of the egg do cannot give infection to the man and it are useless also the weight are less.

Conclusion

The floatation can be used for the specific type of the parasite because some of the parasite are heavy in density and can they need other type of the test to confirm of it present.

Question

1. Are the brine flotation technique are same like the formalin acetyl acetate?

There are no similarities of the floatation technique and the formalin acetyl acetate because the brine deposited on the top of the brine bottle and the formalin acetate are deposited on the bottom of the tube.

2. Gift some type of the parasite that can be detect using the brine technique.

Ascaris lumbricoides ,hookworm,trichura trichuris

3. Are the brine have layer when test done like formalin acetate?

Brine do not have layer on it,

References

http://www.fao.org/wairdocs/ILRI/x5492E/x5492e05.htm

Practical 2: ABO blood grouping-forward test

Objective:to identify the blood group of the person using forward test

Introduction :ABO grouping is performed before produce such as blood transfusion or organ transplantation,an individual should be transfused of the same blood ABO group.the rule to follow in transfusion blood is adviod giving the patient an  antigen that he do not have ,the slide test detected the A or B antigens on the red blood cell using the principle of agglutination,this produce called direct or forward grouping and is accomplished by combining the patient blood cell with a known antiserum and observing for agglutination,if the antigen present on the cells corresponded to the antibody in the serum,the antibody will bind to the antigen and cause clumping of the cells or agglutination,if the antigen is not present on the cells,no agglutination will observed.

Material : tile,serum,fresh blood,venipunture,alcohol

Procedure :

1.       1 drop of blood are  placed on 3 quartend  tile

2.       Added anti serum for each on it

3.       Used the toothpick to mixed well the blood with the anti serum

4.       Observe what happen

Discussion

For the forward test it use the antibody serum to identify the blood type.this because the blood type are having the antigen on the surface of it,it will determined the type of the blood group like the A.B and the O group, the serum are manufactured from the factory so the serum compability are accurate and the result are confirmed as it should be.the blood taking must be freshly acquired from the patient to keep the test can be getting a good result.this test are the famous test used in determine the blood group for anyone.the reaction of the antibody and antigen making the agglutination to happen making the blood group determination are acuiqred.

Conclusion

The blood group O are the dominace in the class

References

The clinical immunohaematology notes

Title:red blood cell suspension

Practical 1:

Title:red blood cell suspension

Objective: to prepare 2%,5%,10% of cell suspension

Introduction :saline solution have used in immunohaematology lab for cell washing and to prepare cell suspension.1% sodium hpochlorite areprepared to clean up places contaimened by blood,suspensions of washed blood having and unknown antigens on their surface area are required for various test in the lab,the washing of cell is necessary to remove plasma ,which may interfere with the interferences with the reaction of the cells,in addition,blood group substances in plasma may neutralize the antiserum leading to false negative result,it also necessary to use red blood cell suspension of the appropriate strength for optimum reactionwith antibody molecule,the red blood cell are suspended in isotonic solution of the sodium chlorideat ph 7.0 adjusted

Procedure :

1.      1 drop of blood were put in the centrifuge tube

2.      Added saline in it until there is 1cm left from the tube mouth

3.      Then centrifuge it at 2500-3000 rpm for about 1-2 minutes

4.      After centrifuge the supernatant are removed and blood are mixed well with another saline

5.      The step 2-3 are repeated

6.      When all the blood are done centrifuge prepare 2% suspension(1 drop blood&49 drop saline),5%(1drop blood,19 saline),10 % (1drop blood,9 drop saline)

Discussion

In this experiment, the blood were added with the saline and mix up together ,the blood cell not hemolysis with the saline water making the experiment can be make to clean the blood to be tested like making the blood grouping test,or other test.some blood in the body it contain many type of distrubace in it like medication that use ,the umbricoil cord ,and other factor.the blood in this experiment were cleaned by 3 times by the centrifuge to make the substances can be removed from the blood solution. The error from the experiment can be happen like when pouring the supernatant from the tube the solution must be removed all to ensure no other substances left out in the tube.while the tube must grip on the right position,to ensure the tube not fall out or missed out from the hand.after the centrifuge done the blood now can be used for the test to it.

Result

 

Conclusion

cells suspension 3-5% have been suspended

Question

1. What is the importance of this study?

To understand the procedure of this experiment to used in the test when there  is disturbance in the result test.to cleaned the blood solution.before test to make sure the test are accurate,

2. What is Wharton jelly ?

Gelatinous substance within the umbilical cord, largely made up of mucopolysaccharides (hyaluronic acid andchondroitin sulfate). It also contains some fibroblasts and macrophages

References

Clinical imunohaematology notes